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The National Stuttering Association is proud to highlight Dr. Christopher Constantino, Associate Professor at Florida State University, whose research is uncovering how stuttering identity shapes emotional well-being. A recipient of the 2019 Canadeo Award, Dr. Constantino is exploring what it means to truly feel good about being a person who stutters. Why Stuttering Research Matters Dr. Constantino’s project began with a question: How does stuttering impact someone’s sense of self and their emotions during everyday speaking? “I was interested in how aspects of a speaker’s stuttering identity impacted their well-being while speaking,” Dr. Constantino explained. “Specifically, I measured stuttering’s centrality (how important it is to a speaker’s sense of self), private regard (their attitude toward stuttering), and positive and negative affect (how they were feeling in a particular moment).” He also tracked stuttering’s salience—how aware participants were of their stuttering during conversations—and measured spontaneity and fluency. Studying Life as It Happens Rather than relying solely on lab settings, Dr. Constantino took his research into the real world. He used the experience sampling method, asking adults to complete brief surveys on their smartphones multiple times a day for a week.  “This allowed me to measure their subjective experience of speaking in the real world, as it occurred during their everyday life,” he said. What Dr. Constantino Found The results are striking: When someone is highly aware of their stuttering (high salience), having stuttering as a central part of their identity can help them feel better. Feeling good about being a person who stutters (private regard) supports positive emotions, especially when stuttering is highly noticeable. The less effort a speaker puts into speaking, the better they feel. In contrast, speaking fluently with effort can make someone feel worse. “This is the first study documenting that salience of stuttering can be anything other than negative,” Dr. Constantino said. “Furthermore, stuttering salience was not just neutral; it was positive! This is a real, documented benefit of stuttering. We have measured stuttering gain.” Implications for Therapy and Support These findings have major implications for how people who stutter—and the professionals who support them—approach therapy. Traditional approaches often aim to create fluent speakers at all costs, but Dr. Constantino’s research suggests a different path. “These findings show that therapies that pursue a false fluent identity forfeit the potential well-being gains of a positive stuttering identity,” he said. “Increasing private regard for stuttering improves psychological outcomes and may be tied to speaking more spontaneously. Therapy should target integrating stuttering into one’s sense of self and cultivating a sense of stuttering pride.” This perspective is central to Stutter-Affirming Therapy, which Dr. Constantino developed to help speakers embrace stuttering rather than reject it. The approach has three main priorities: Reject fluency by reducing stutterphobic reactions and increasing stutterphilic reactions. Value stuttering by discovering what speakers gain from it. Create an environment in which it’s easier to stutter through education, advocacy, disclosure, and voluntary stuttering. Looking Ahead Dr. Constantino is continuing to expand this research. His work promises to influence not only therapy practices but also how stuttering is understood, discussed, and valued in everyday life. “The next step is to study how to facilitate a more positive stuttering identity by increasing centrality and private regard,” he said.  For those interested in learning more, Dr. Constantino presented his findings at the Oxford Stuttering and Cluttering Research Conference and plans to publish them soon.

Since 1999, the National Stuttering Association (NSA) has proudly supported a growing body of research aimed at understanding, treating, and destigmatizing stuttering. This archive honors all past and present researchers, award recipients, and NSA Research Committee-approved projects that have contributed to our collective knowledge of stuttering. Graduate Student Research Award Recipients $5,000 grant  supporting graduate-level research in stuttering. Previously known as the NSA Research Fund Award. Year Recipient(s) Research Title 2025 Amir Hossein Jokar Rasoli How Do Teens Who Stutter Define Stuttering? 2024 Haley Warner, M.S., CCC-SLP How the Perception of the Listener Impacts Stuttering in Early Childhood 2023 Cody Dew, MA, CCC-SLP How People Who Stutter Experience and Navigate Stigma and Discrimination in the U.S. Labor Force: A Phenomenological Analysis 2022 Ryan Millager, MS, CCC-SLP Parent-Oriented Features in Early Childhood Stuttering: A Pilot Study 2021 Xiaofan Lei, MA Stuttering and Emotion in Daily Life 2020 Robyn Croft, MS, CF-SLP; PhD Student & Dr. Courtney Byrd Improving Quality of Life for Adults Who Stutter Through an Online Self-Compassion Intervention: A Pilot Study 2017 Cara M. Singer, M.A., CCC-SLP The Contribution of Cognitive-Emotional and Speech-Language Vulnerabilities to Stuttering Chronicity 2016 Kim Bauerly, PhD, CCC-SLP The Effects of Social Stress on Speech-Motor Control in Adults Who Stutter 2015 Mary Weidner, MS, CCC-SLP Mitigating Non-Stuttering Children’s Attitudes Toward Their Peers Who Stutter 2014 Sujini Ramachandar, MS, CCC-SLP and J. Scott Yaruss, Ph.D, CCC-SLP, BRS-FD, ASHA Fellow Identifying Neuroanatomical Differences in People Who Stutter Using High Definition Fiber Tracking Canadeo Research Award Recipients Award recognizing outstanding contributions to the field of stuttering research. Year Recipient(s) Research Title 2019 Christopher Constantino, Ph.D., CCC-SLP Stuttering Identity’s Contribution to Well-Being Among Adults Who Stutter 2018 Rodney Gabel, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, BCS-F & Michael P. Boyle, Ph.D., CCC-SLP Being Open About Stuttering: What Are the Effects? 2017 Victoria Tumanova, PhD, CCC-SLP Autonomic Nervous System Response to Speech Production in Stuttering and Normally Fluent Preschool-Age Children 2016 Hatun Zengin-Bolatkale, M.A., CCC-SLP 2015 Michael P. Boyle, Ph.D. Reducing the Stigma Associated with Stuttering: A Comparison of Three Strategies for Change 2014 Chagit Edery Clark Linguistic Dissociations, Attention Regulation, and Childhood Stuttering 2013 Emily O’Dell Garnett, M.S., CCC-SLP and Dirk-Bart den Ouden, Ph.D. Effects of Cortical Stimulation on Self-Monitoring Performance in People Who Stutter 2012 Geoff Coalson, MS, CCC-SLP & Courtney Byrd, PhD, CCC-SLP Phonological Syllabification in Adults Who Do and Do Not Stutter CASE Research Grant Recipients $15,000 grant supporting research in Community, Advocacy, Support, and Education (CASE) Year Recipient(s) Research Title 2025 Dr. Sujini Ramachandar Reading Fluency in Children who Stutter 2024 Dr. David Evans Jenson The Impact of Self-Disclosure on Autonomic Activity in People Who Stutter and Conversational Partners 2023 Dr. Jeanne Nakamura Fluency and Flow Experiences in the Daily Lives of People Who Stutter 2022 Dr. John Tetnowski & Dr. J. Cecil Use of Virtual Reality Simulations to Promote Carry-Over in Older Children and Adolescents Who Stutter 2021 Dr. Nan Ratner Establishing an Evidence-Base for Recommendations to Parents of Young Children Who Stutter

Contributor: Chantel McAlonan, M.Sc., S-LP, Reg. CASLPO, and Person Who Stutters Stuttering is more than repetition, prolongation, or blocking. It is an individualized experience that shapes how someone communicates and navigates the world. While many people know about childhood-onset stuttering (also known as developmental stuttering), fewer are aware that stuttering can also begin later in life after a stroke, head injury, a reaction to certain medications, or as part of neurodegenerative disorders. This is known as acquired stuttering, an umbrella term that neurogenic stuttering falls under. What is Developmental Stuttering? Developmental stuttering is the most common type of stuttering. It typically begins between the ages of 2 and 6, likely due to rapid language development when children learn to construct more complex sentences. Around 5-10% of children will experience stuttering at some point. Many of these children develop fluent speech and a smaller group will continue to stutter into adolescence and adulthood. The causes of developmental stuttering are complex. Despite common myths, research has shown that it is not due to nervousness or poor parenting. Instead, it is linked to differences in how the brain coordinates speech planning and motor control. Genetics also plays an important role, with stuttering often appearing across multiple generations of a family. Children who stutter may also have subtle co-occurring differences in neurological processing, speech and language planning, emotional reactivity, or regulation of attention and executive functioning. These differences reflect the complex nature of stuttering and how it can interact with other aspects of development. Developmental stuttering usually follows a gradual course. The stuttering often appears at the beginning of words, phrases, or sentences and is typically more noticeable on content words like nouns and verbs. However, this pattern does not occur in all cases, and some children may stutter on function words, like “and or “the”, especially in the early stages of developmental stuttering. Children may repeat sounds or syllables, stretch out certain sounds, or become momentarily blocked when trying to speak. Over time, some children and adults develop physical tension, secondary characteristics (eg, eye blinks, avoiding eye contact), or avoidance behaviors (eg, changing words) as ways of coping with moments of stuttering. These learned reactions reflect how stuttering involves both involuntary speech patterns and the effortful strategies people develop to manage them. Living with developmental stuttering can shape a person’s confidence, social choices, and willingness to speak in front of others. This is why early support matters so much. Speech therapy can provide helpful tools to become a more effective and confident communicator, while emotional support from family, teachers, and peers helps reduce stigma. Just as important is community: finding a space where stuttering is understood, such as National Stuttering Association (NSA) Chapters, allows people to feel accepted for who they are. Read: What Is Stuttering? Read: Causes of Stuttering What is Neurogenic Stuttering? Neurogenic stuttering begins after a neurological change in the brain. Someone who has never stuttered before may suddenly develop stuttering after experiencing a stroke, a traumatic brain injury, a brain tumor, a degenerative neurological condition, or as a reaction to certain medications. Neurogenic stuttering can occur more evenly across a person’s speech. Stuttering may appear on both content words and function words, such as “the” or “and.” Stuttering may also be heard at the beginning, middle, and end of words. Unlike developmental stuttering, it often does not lessen during singing or choral reading. Because neurogenic stuttering arises suddenly and is usually tied to a significant health event, people may not immediately develop the coping strategies commonly seen in developmental stuttering. However, neurogenic stuttering frequently coexists with other communication or motor challenges, such as aphasia, apraxia of speech, or difficulties with executive functioning, memory, and attention. This can make communication more complex and requires a comprehensive approach in therapy. When stuttering appears as a side effect of medication, doctors may consider adjusting or replacing the medication. In some cases, reducing or stopping the drug lessens the stuttering. Antipsychotics such as clozapine, some antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and other central nervous system medications are among the best-documented causes of drug-induced stuttering. In situations where medication changes are not possible, speech-language pathologists (SLPs) can support individuals by helping them develop coping strategies, improve communication confidence, and explore fluency techniques if desired. In these cases, therapy focuses on effective, comfortable communication rather than achieving perfect fluency. Key Differences at a Glance Elizabeth Minton: Living with a Neurogenic Stutter Elizabeth Minton is from Greensboro, North Carolina, and is in her second year of graduate school for speech-language pathology and hopes to one day earn her doctorate so that she can one day research neurogenic stuttering. “I’ve been involved with the NSA for over four years,” Elizabeth said. “I discovered the NSA after a homework assignment! I went back to school and I took a class with a professor who stutters. He gave us an assignment that mentioned the NSA. I looked it up and went to my first Annual Conference in 2022. I am a member of the Young Adults Committee and I’ve loved every minute.” Elizabeth began to stutter suddenly on August 8, 2020. “I began a new medication (gabapentin) and began to stutter within 48 hours. I stopped the medication within 6 days, but the stutter never went away.” But at first, she didn’t think anything of it. Because her stutter was due to a medication, there was the assumption that it would go away and that it was just a side effect. But after the days turned to weeks and weeks into months, that’s when Elizabeth started to panic. “I was convinced my life was over,” Elizabeth said. The COVID-19 pandemic made things harder for Elizabeth since seeing doctors at that time, as she described, was “very difficult.” “I have to explain the difference [between developmental and neurogenic stuttering] often,” Elizabeth said. “This usually happens with speech therapists who did not get a thorough explanation of acquired stuttering in school and have never seen a case before. I have to explain that neurogenic stutters are acquired later in life due to some type of change in the brain. We stutter on all syllables, not just the initial one. Traditional therapeutic techniques don’t work on acquired stutters.” She’s also had to clarify that emotional and physical reactions can be part of the stuttering experience. “Just because the textbooks say that people with acquired stutters don’t develop emotional issues and secondary behaviors, it doesn’t mean you shouldn’t ask about them. I developed secondaries. I developed major emotional issues.” Outside of professional circles, her explanations sound a little different. “I’ve also had to explain the difference to random people in my life,” she said. “This is mainly because I’ve had to explain to people why I went from totally fluent to sounding like a lawnmower (according to a toddler I knew a few years ago!). Those explanations are usually simpler than the ones I give to speech professionals. Thankfully, most people are understanding!” But Elizabeth realized that her voice could still have power. She went back to school in 2022 because her initial degree was in Communications Studies (which she calls ironic). She decided to recreationally take an Intro to Communication Disorders class to try to learn more about stuttering. She didn’t expect her professor to be a person who stuttered. “In that moment, I thought, ‘Wait, he has a job where he talks all the time. And no one cares. He’s got a job and a life,’” she said. “That was when I realized I could have that too. My voice could still be worth it.” After that, she took two years of speech therapy once a week. She said her therapy included a lot of desensitization and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT). She had the opportunity to speak to a group of mostly strangers. Bravely, she spoke for 15 minutes in front of people who didn’t even know her. “And that was when I really knew that my voice was worth listening to,” Elizabeth said. “Now, I speak to all kinds of people. I work with students who stutter, as well as other students. I speak to other classes. I’m a regular on my friend’s livestream. I talk just as much as I used to. It just takes me longer (and half the time it’s longer because of all the dumb jokes I say).” When asked if the stuttering community has space for neurogenic experiences, Elizabeth said it does. “I was welcomed with open arms when I joined,” she said. “Despite having no experience in the community, I was able to dive right in. I have never felt othered in the community for having a different kind of stutter.” Here’s her message to the general public, clinicians, and allies: “First, please don’t dismiss someone’s experience because it’s something you’ve never heard of! My case is incredibly rare, but that doesn’t mean it’s in my head or anything like that! I’m not faking (believe me, I’m way too lazy to fake it). I’m not cold. I’m not unintelligent (trust me, I’ve been in school way too long to be unintelligent). My voice is worth hearing and if you aren’t willing to take the time to wait, then you probably aren’t worth the effort it takes for me to speak in the first place. I am valid. My voice is valid.” Read: Support for People Who Stutter, Families, & Educators Read: What to Ask When Choosing a Speech Therapist for Your Child Who Stutters Treatment & Support for Stuttering Both developmental and neurogenic stuttering can benefit from speech therapy, but the goals and approaches are tailored to the individual. In developmental stuttering, therapy may focus on managing moments of stuttering, building communication confidence, reducing fear or avoidance, and stuttering modification or fluency-enhancing approaches if desired. In neurogenic stuttering, therapy is similar, but often addresses the co-occurring neurological or cognitive changes that affect speech and language to improve overall participation in daily life. In cases of medication-induced stuttering, a medical review is essential. Adjusting the prescription under a doctor’s supervision can sometimes reduce or eliminate the stuttering. No matter the type of stuttering, it’s not simply about achieving fluent speech. It is about communication and participation in everyday life. That is why emotional support and community connection are equally important for self-acceptance and communicating with confidence. Final Thoughts Whether stuttering begins in early childhood or after a life-changing event, every person who stutters deserves respect and understanding. Developmental and neurogenic stuttering may differ in terms of their cause and presentation, but both require patience, understanding, and listening. Allies play a key role in this. Waiting for someone to finish, giving them space to express themselves, and showing openness to communication differences sends a message that stuttering is just how some people speak. By listening to and learning from those with lived experiences, we build the most important skill of all, empathy. Finding others who share the experience can be life-changing. The NSA community offers various spaces where individuals and families discover they are not alone and stuttering is celebrated. At the NSA, we believe that every voice matters. You are not alone. Please visit our website at WeStutter.org for more information and resources about stuttering. Frequently Asked Questions What is the difference between developmental and neurogenic stuttering? Developmental stuttering usually begins in early childhood, often between ages 2 and 5. Neurogenic stuttering begins later in life after a neurological change, such as a stroke, traumatic brain injury, brain tumor, neurodegenerative condition, or reaction to certain medications. Can someone start stuttering suddenly as an adult? Yes. While many people associate stuttering with childhood, stuttering can also begin suddenly in adulthood. This is called acquired stuttering, and neurogenic stuttering is one type of acquired stuttering. Is stuttering caused by nervousness or poor parenting? Nope. Developmental stuttering is not caused by nervousness or poor parenting. Research shows that stuttering is multifactorial and may involve genetics, neurology, speech motor coordination, language development, and environmental factors. Can medication cause stuttering? In some cases, yes. Certain medications that affect the central nervous system have been linked to drug-induced stuttering. If stuttering begins after starting a new medication, it is important to speak with a doctor before making any changes. Does speech therapy help with neurogenic stuttering? Speech therapy can help people with neurogenic stuttering build communication confidence, explore strategies, and address any related speech, language, or cognitive challenges. Therapy goals should be individualized and focused on comfortable, effective communication. Do people with neurogenic stuttering develop emotional reactions or secondary behaviors? They can. While some descriptions of neurogenic stuttering suggest that secondary behaviors may be minimal or absent early on, lived experiences vary. People with acquired stutters may still experience frustration, anxiety, avoidance, physical tension, or other emotional impacts. What should allies do when speaking with someone who stutters? Listen patiently, give the person time to finish, avoid interrupting or completing their sentences, and focus on what they are saying rather than how they are saying it. Respectful listening helps create more inclusive communication spaces. Where can people who stutter find support? Community support can make a meaningful difference. The NSA offers spaces where people who stutter and their families can connect, share experiences, and find encouragement. Find yours today at WeStutter.org.

Fear shows up at least once in a while for everyone, but for people who stutter (PWS), it can feel amplified in otherwise “everyday” or “ordinary” moments. Like ordering a coffee, introducing yourself to someone new, or sitting across from a potential employer during an interview.  But advocate and author Matice Morris   reminds us that fear can become the very thing that helps us grow in our stuttering journey. She shared her story  with the National Stuttering Association (NSA) community during the 2023 Annual Conference, offering reflections that continue to inspire years later.  She reminds us that courage is not about waiting for the fear to fade. It is about moving forward while it is still there. When the World Doubts People Who Stutter Unfortunately, many PWS know what it feels like to be underestimated or undermined. Matice described one of those moments: “I had a job recruiter tell me I would have a hard time getting a job because the employers would think I was mentally challenged. I was facing constant rejection and adversity.” That moment could have discouraged her. Instead, she chose to keep going, fueled by the belief that her stutter was not something to hide. Doing the Thing That Scares You The Most Fear often signals that growth is just around the corner. Matice shared an empowering lesson that resonates with anyone seeking to find courage in their voice: “Do the thing that scares you the most. It’s in the scary, hard moments where we see what we’re made of. Most times, we’re stronger than our fears by far.” By stepping into what felt uncomfortable, she discovered her strength: “I refused to let my stutter hold me back from another job opportunity. I felt the fear and did it anyway. After one interview, I was hired.” Courage doesn’t mean being fearless. It means acting despite the fear and seeing what is possible on the other side. Redefining Confidence Confidence grows from empathy, self-acceptance, and community: “When I started the job hunt again, I still stuttered, but I knew there was absolutely nothing wrong with it. In fact, it made me that much better, empathetic, and attentive to others. I believe my inner confidence showed externally, and I received multiple job offers.” Her closing message continues to inspire: “Feel the fear and do it anyway. Do the thing that scares you the most, and you’ll see that fear is only a mental mountain, where, on the other side, is confidence.” Fear is not the end of the story. It is often the beginning of strength. Conclusion At the NSA, we celebrate voices like Matice’s. Join an NSA Chapter near you or connect online at WeStutter.org to find your community today.

The National Stuttering Association® is honored to share this updated 2025 directory of workshops, summer camps, intensive programs, and retreats  that provide education, therapy, and community support for people who stutter. Whether you are a parent looking for a safe camp experience for your child, a teen seeking peer connection, or an adult interested in intensive therapy, this list highlights trusted opportunities across the U.S. and internationally. If you’d like to update your program or add a new listing, please contact Sarah Onofri   National / Multi-State Camp SAY Who:  Ages 8–18 When:  July 19 – August 1, 2025 Where:  Morgan’s Wonderland Camp, San Antonio, TX Highlights:  Two-week sleep-away camp with traditional activities + supportive community. Also runs Camp SAY: Across the USA  weekend pop-ups. American Institute for Stuttering (AIS) Who:  Children, teens & adults Where:  New York City, Atlanta, Los Angeles, and Online Highlights:  Group & individual therapy, intensives, Avoidance Reduction Therapy for Stuttering (ARTS©), speaker events, and support groups. Northeast Camp Dream. Speak. Live. (Arthur M. Blank Center) Who:  Children ages ~5–15 Where:  Varies annually (2025 host: Binghamton University, NY) Highlights:  Free camp focused on communication confidence, community, and leadership. Camp Words Unspoken (Pittsfield, MA) Who:  Children & teens, ages 7–17 When:  Summer 2025 session open (tuition details available) Highlights:  Overnight camp blending recreational fun with therapeutic speech sessions. SPEAK NOW! (Temple University, Philadelphia, PA) Who:  Children & teens When:  Summer 2025 Highlights:  Day camp combining speech goals, peer connection, and therapy-led activities. Hope for Stuttering ‘Flourish Retreat’ Who:  Older teens, college-age, and adults Where:  Milford, CT Highlights:  A transformative 5-day retreat emphasizing belonging, growth, and social confidence. Includes daily sessions and beachside community building. Mid-Atlantic / Southeast Positive Responses to Stuttering Program (PRSP, East Carolina Univ.) Who:  Children (6+), teens & adults Highlights:  Intensive summer program targeting overt and covert stuttering behaviors. Camp T.A.L.K.S. (Vanderbilt Bill Wilkerson Center, Nashville, TN) Who:  Ages 8–16 + families When:  June 2–6, 2025 Highlights:  Day camp with a strong family involvement component. Volunteer Your Voice (University of Tennessee) Who:  Ages 9–16 When:  May 28–30, 2025 Where:  Tremont, TN Highlights:  Three-day overnight camp with outdoor activities and communication practice. Central South Comprehensive Stuttering Therapy Program (CSTP, Texas State Univ.) Who:  Teens & adults (14+) When:  July 14–19, 2025 Where:  San Marcos, TX Highlights:  Six-day intensive program focusing on real-world communication. Central North UMN “Kids Who Stutter” Summer Camp (University of Minnesota, Minneapolis) Who:  Students entering grades 5–9 When:  Summer 2025 Highlights:  A fun, inclusive camp experience focusing on self-acceptance, communication, and peer connection. Star Lake Out Loud Who:  Kids & teens who stutter, ages 8–17 Where:  Crosslake, MN Highlights:  Wilderness camping experience building confidence, communication, and lifelong friendships. Northwest Camp More (Rockaway Beach, OR) Who:  Kids & teens, ages 7–18 When:  August 16–21, 2025 Where:  Camp Magruder, Rockaway Beach, OR Highlights:  Overnight camp designed to build friendships, confidence, and communication skills. Successful Stuttering Management Program (SSMP, Eastern Washington Univ.) Who:  Teens & adults When:  June 18–27, 2025 Where:  Cheney/Spokane, WA Highlights:  Nine-day residential intensive focusing on avoidance reduction and stuttering modification. Mountain West University of Utah Intensive Stuttering Clinic Who:  Ages 15+ (participants must be mature enough for intensity) When:  July 20 – July 31, 2026 (2025 details forthcoming) Where:  Salt Lake City, UT (University of Utah Research Park Campus) Highlights:  2-week intensive program combining fluency shaping and fluency management. Morning sessions emphasize structured drills; afternoons include transfer tasks, conversation practice, and field trips. Contact:   Julia Lidgard (Director) Catamount Intensive Stuttering Program (CISP) Who: Individuals who stutter, ages 14+ When: July 27–31, 2026 Where: Western Carolina University, Cullowhee, NC Highlights: A free 5-day intensive focusing on stuttering modification and avoidance reduction. Learn more: Western Carolina University – Catamount Intensive Stuttering Program Colorado Speaks Camp (University of Colorado Boulder) Who:  Ages 12–18 When:  June 2025 (exact dates TBA) Where:  University of Colorado Boulder Campus, Wolf Law Building – 2450 Kittredge Loop Drive, Boulder, CO 80309 Highlights:  A week-long day camp offering full days of fun, games, and real-life social-communication skill building for young people who stutter. Participants gain confidence, advocacy skills, and tools for managing stuttering in everyday situations. Contact :  Shelley Sheppeck, Director of Clinic Operations – slhc@colorado.edu  | 303-492-9949 Learn more:   CU Speech, Language & Hearing Clinic Virtual & International Oxford Stuttering & Cluttering Research Conference Who:  Clinicians, researchers & people who stutter When:  September 23–26, 2025 Where:  St Catherine’s College, Oxford, UK Highlights:  International conference with leading voices in stuttering and cluttering research. SPACE Community & Arts (Online) Who:  Youth (7–18) & young adults (18–22) Highlights:  Virtual arts and advocacy programs across the U.S. and Canada. The Unblockables – Improv for People Who Stutter Who:  Adults who stutter Format:  Virtual cohorts, led by professional improv coaches Highlights:  Builds confidence and expression through performance-based practice. The Care Clinic at Perley Health (Ottawa, Canada; Virtual Available) Who:  All ages Highlights:  Bilingual (English/French) assessment and therapy, with telepractice options. McGuire Programme (Global) Who:  Teens & adults (14+) When:  Courses run year-round; 2025 calendar published Where:  Worldwide (in-person & virtual) Highlights:  3–4 day intensive courses combining speech techniques, confidence-building, and peer support. We encourage families and individuals to reach out directly to each organization for the latest details. Want to explore more support? Visit our NSA Annual Conference page  and Find a Chapter page  to connect with the community year-round.

At the National Stuttering Association (NSA), our mission is to empower speech-language pathologists (SLPs) with research-driven knowledge, clinical tools, and community connections to help people who stutter (PWS) communicate with confidence. Addressing stuttering can feel complex, and even experienced clinicians may wonder how to best support clients of different ages and experiences. The NSA exists to make that process easier—with continuing-education opportunities, research collaborations, and local chapters that strengthen both professional skill and human connection. Empowering SLPs to Support People Who Stutter Our resources are designed to help you stay informed, inspired, and connected to the larger stuttering community. Whether you’re an SLP working in schools, private practice, hospitals, or universities, the NSA provides reliable information and a supportive professional network that enhances the care you provide. Professional Development & Continuing Education Stay current with ASHA-approved continuing-education workshops, NSA webinars, and clinician-focused sessions offered at our Annual Conference—the premier national event for stuttering awareness and professional growth. Each program blends the latest research with real-world strategies so you can apply new insights immediately in therapy. Conference participation also offers CEUs and the opportunity to engage directly with leaders in stuttering research and clinical practice. The NSA’s Professional Relations Committee offers free in-service presentations for SLPs, available via Zoom for schools, clinics, and other professional settings. These sessions provide practical tools and up-to-date insights to better support people who stutter in educational and clinical environments. The committee also hosts quarterly NSA Connects sessions, designed specifically for SLPs to exchange ideas, share experiences, and strengthen their professional community. For more information or to schedule an in-service, contact Courtney Luckman. Research Collaboration Opportunities Join us in advancing the science of stuttering. The NSA regularly partners with universities and clinicians to study fluency, identity, and quality of life for people who stutter. SLPs are invited to contribute data, participate in studies, or collaborate on upcoming research projects. Together, we can expand evidence-based understanding and shape the next generation of stuttering intervention. Learn more on the NSA Approved Research page. Local Events and Chapters Throughout the year, the NSA hosts One-Day Conferences, fundraisers, and community events that bring together people who stutter, their families, and professionals. These gatherings allow SLPs to connect with the lived experiences of stuttering, deepening empathy and insight that translate directly into therapy. Find ongoing peer support through our nationwide network of Local NSA Chapters for adults, teens, kids, and families. Chapter meetings are open to SLPs and offer a welcoming space to learn, listen, and grow alongside the community you serve. Helpful Educational Resources for Speech-Language Pathologists' Expand your clinical toolkit through our evidence-based learning pages: What Is Stuttering? — Understand the neurological and linguistic foundations of stuttering. Treatment Options — Explore fluency-shaping, stuttering-modification, and stutter-affirming approaches. Find a Speech Therapist — Access referral networks and professional directories to support your clients. These resources are continually updated to reflect current research and clinical best practice. Join the NSA Professional Community The NSA is more than an organization—it’s a community of professionals, researchers, and people who stutter united by a shared goal: to create a world where every person can communicate freely and authentically. Join us to stay informed, contribute your expertise, and advocate for inclusion in every speaking environment. Last Updated: October 2025 Author: National Stuttering Association Marketing & Education Team with contributions from Nicole Kulmaczewski, MS, CCC-SLP and Jacqueline Toscano, SLP.D. CCC-SLP

Pediatricians play a vital role in recognizing the early signs of stuttering, guiding caregivers, and referring families to qualified speech-language pathologists. Parents often turn first to their child’s doctor for reassurance and direction, which means pediatricians are uniquely positioned to promote early intervention and reduce stigma. The National Stuttering Association provides educational resources and professional insights to help pediatricians support children who stutter and their families with empathy, understanding, and evidence-based guidance. What is Stuttering? Stuttering is a natural variation in speech in which the timing and flow of spoken language include moments of repetition, prolongation, or blocking of sounds and words. These moments reflect the diversity of human communication and are not signs of reduced intelligence or poor parenting. According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) and current research, stuttering is part of normal variation in how people produce speech. Commonly Observed Features Repetitions:  repeating sounds, syllables, or words, for example “I I I want to go.”  Prolongations:  stretching out a sound, for example “ssssun.”  Blocks:  pauses where speech stops momentarily, often with visible or internal tension even though the speaker knows what they want to say. These speech differences can occur more often when a person is excited, tired, feels pressure to speak quickly, or is in specific social environments. Beyond What You Hear Stuttering is not limited to speech sounds. It may include physical movements, emotional responses, and behavioral adaptations. Physical aspects  can include eye blinking, facial tension, or shifts in posture during speaking.  Emotional and cognitive aspects  involve thoughts and feelings about speaking that may be shaped by personal experiences and reactions from others.  Communication behaviors  such as word substitution or avoiding certain words or situations may reflect concern about how others respond to stuttering rather than the stutter itself. Varieties of Stuttering Although every individual’s speech is unique, stuttering can be described in several ways depending on how it begins and what causes it. Childhood Onset Stuttering  often begins between ages two and five during rapid speech and language development.  Neurogenic Stuttering  may occur following neurological changes such as a brain injury or stroke.  Functional Stuttering  is rare and can sometimes follow psychological or emotional events. Causes of Stuttering Stuttering is a complex neurological condition that involves multiple contributing factors. It cannot be explained by nervousness, personality, or speaking too quickly. Developmental stuttering originates in the areas of the brain responsible for speech and language processing. Genetic, environmental, and developmental influences all interact to affect fluency. While stuttering may occur along with other speech or language differences, it is neurological rather than psychological in origin. ADVISING CAREGIVERS Misunderstandings about stuttering are widespread, and parents often feel responsible for their child’s speech. Pediatricians play an important role in helping parents understand that stuttering is nobody’s fault. When speaking with caregivers, pediatricians should: Reassure families that stuttering is a normal variation of communication. Emphasize that creating a relaxed and accepting environment helps more than correction. Explain that an early consultation with a speech-language pathologist can support positive outcomes. These conversations can help reduce guilt, ease anxiety, and empower families to respond to their child’s speech with confidence and support. SPEECH THERAPY FOR CHILDREN For Young Children For preschoolers, speech therapy focuses on helping children and families build healthy and positive responses to moments of stuttering. Therapy supports acceptance and confidence in communication, helping children develop a sense of ease and pride in how they speak. The goal is not to eliminate stuttering but to prevent negative reactions to stuttering from the child or others, and to nurture positive attitudes about speaking. For Older Children and Adolescents For older children, therapy continues to address emotional and social responses to stuttering while focusing on individualized goals that promote communication confidence and self-advocacy. Effective therapy is tailored to each child’s needs and may evolve as they grow. EARLY IDENTIFICATION Early identification is one of the most valuable ways to improve outcomes. Pediatricians can use evidence-based tools such as the Childhood Stuttering Screening for Physicians (CSS-P) to determine whether referral to a speech-language pathologist is appropriate. Observation alone is not enough to measure severity or determine the need for therapy. Pediatricians should consider referring when: Parents express concern about speech or communication frustration. The child shows visible struggle or physical tension when speaking. The child demonstrates awareness or anxiety about talking. Discussing these factors helps families make informed choices about pursuing speech therapy early. EARLY INTERVENTION Up to seventy-five percent of preschoolers who stutter experience spontaneous resolution, but early identification remains essential. A wait and see approach may delay support for children who are at risk of persistent stuttering. Early referral to a speech-language pathologist can reduce the likelihood of long-term negative experiences with speaking and help children develop healthy and empowered attitudes about communication. When and How to Refer Speech-language pathologists certified by the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) are trained to diagnose and treat stuttering. Pediatricians can refer families directly to a speech-language pathologist or connect them with national organizations like the National Stuttering Association. To find a speech-language pathologist who specializes in childhood stuttering, click here. How Pediatricians Can Support Families Recognize early signs of stuttering and take caregiver concerns seriously. Reassure parents that stuttering is not caused by anxiety, trauma, or parenting style. Refer to a qualified speech-language pathologist rather than waiting to see if stuttering resolves on its own. Encourage families to foster open, pressure-free communication at home. Share evidence-based resources  from the National Stuttering Association By providing informed, empathetic guidance, pediatricians can play a meaningful role in ensuring that children who stutter receive timely support and encouragement for confident communication. Last Updated:  October 2025 Author:  National Stuttering Association Marketing & Education Team with contributions from Nicole Kulmaczewski, MS, CCC-SLP and Jacqueline Toscano, SLP.D. CCC-SLP.

No one speaks with perfect fluency all the time. Everyone occasionally says “um”  or “like,”  repeats a word, or pauses to find the right one. These normal disfluencies differ from stuttering , where interruptions in speech occur more frequently and can impact communication, confidence, and emotional well-being. For people who stutter, these moments can bring feelings of loss of control, frustration, shame, or even trauma. For some, stuttering resolves in childhood; for others, it continues through adulthood. Why does this happen? Researchers agree that stuttering results from a combination of factors  — including genetics, language development, environment, and brain structure and function  (Smith & Weber, 2017). These factors interact dynamically to influence how speech develops and is produced. Stuttering and Language Development Stuttering most often begins between the ages of two and five , when speech and language are developing rapidly . During this stage, children’s brains are learning to coordinate complex skills such as vocabulary, sentence construction, and speech motor control. Researchers believe that interactions among genetic predisposition , natural language growt h, and neurological timing differences contribute to whether stuttering emerges or continues over time. For some children, stuttering naturally resolves on its own , while for others, it remains a part of how they communicate . This stage of development places high cognitive and motor demands on speech, and for children predisposed to stutter, those demands may temporarily or persistently disrupt fluency. Genetic Factors Family histories consistently show that stuttering runs in families . Children who stutter frequently have relatives who also stutter, and identical twins (who share all genes) exhibit more similar stuttering patterns than fraternal twins. While no single “stuttering gene” has been identified, researchers have linked several gene variants to the condition. These genes influence how the brain develops and maintains the pathways responsible for speech and motor coordination. Stuttering also shows a gender difference : it affects males more than females, and females are more likely to recover before adulthood. Genetic predisposition alone does not determine outcome—it interacts with brain organization, language growth, and environment. Brain Activity in People Who Stutter The prevailing theory suggests that neurological organization  influences both the onset and persistence of stuttering. Brain imaging studies reveal differences in how people who stutter plan, time, and execute speech: Greater right-hemisphere activity , paired with reduced activation in traditional left-hemisphere speech centers. Differences in white-matter connections  that link motor and auditory areas of the brain. Less efficient auditory feedback processing  and slightly slower sensory-motor reaction times. These neurological findings reinforce that stuttering is not psychological —it’s rooted in how the brain coordinates language and movement. Emotions and the Environment Children who experience negative listener reactions or teasing may develop fear, shame, or avoidance behaviors  around speaking. Attempts to hide or prevent stuttering can increase physical tension, further disrupting fluency. Although emotional factors and nervousness do not cause stuttering , they can amplify its frequency or visibility. Supportive, patient environments—where communication is valued over speed—help children and adults communicate with more confidence. Characteristics Associated with Persistence Between 5% and 8%  of preschool children develop stuttering, but roughly 80% recover naturally . Children may be more likely to continue stuttering if they: Are male Have a family history  of stuttering Are older at onset Exhibit frequent stuttering-like disfluencies  or speech-sound errors Demonstrate variable or extreme language skills These factors don’t guarantee persistence but can help SLPs identify children who may benefit from early intervention. Acquired Stuttering While most stuttering begins in early childhood, some adults develop acquired stuttering  following neurological or psychological events. Neurogenic stuttering  may occur after stroke, head injury,  or degenerative disease. Psychogenic stuttering  can emerge after emotional trauma or stress. These cases differ from developmental stuttering and require specialized assessment to determine the underlying cause. Common Myths About Causes There are many myths surrounding the origins of stuttering. It’s vital to understand what does not  cause it: Stuttering is not caused by parenting  or how parents react to speech. Stuttering is not a psychological problem , though it can have emotional effects. Stuttering does not reflect low intelligence . Stuttering is not caused by bilingualism , though fluency may vary across languages. Stuttering is not caused by nervousness or anxiety . Most importantly, stuttering is no one’s fault. Learn More & Get Involved Understanding the multifactorial nature of stuttering helps professionals and families respond with empathy and evidence-based care. Read What Is Stuttering?   for an overview of stuttering as a neurological difference. Explore Stuttering Treatment Options   to see current therapy approaches. Join our Research Initiatives  to support ongoing studies. Connect locally through NSA Chapters  for community support and insight. References Smith, A., & Weber, C. (2017). How stuttering develops: The multifactorial dynamic pathways theory.   Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60 (9), 2483-2505. Yairi, E., & Ambrose, N. (2013). Epidemiology of stuttering: 21st century advances. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 38(2), 66-87.  Singer, C. M., Hessling, A., Kelly, E. M., Singer, L., & Jones, R. M. (2020). Clinical characteristics associated with stuttering persistence: A meta-analysis.   Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 63 (9), 2995-3018. Original material provided by: Leslee Dean, M.A. (Latin American Studies), MS-SLP student, Florida International University, and Angela M. Medina, Ph.D., CCC-SLP.Revisions provided (01 / 2024) by Caitlin Franchini, MS, CCC-SLP, and Dr. Megan M. Young, CCC-SLP. Last Updated:  October 2025 Author:  National Stuttering Association Marketing & Education Team with contributions from Nicole Kulmaczewski, MS, CCC-SLP and Jacqueline Toscano, SLP.D. CCC-SLP

Dr. Cara Singer, Associate Professor of Speech-Language Pathology at Grand Valley State University When Cara M. Singer, PhD, CCC-SLP , received the National Stuttering Association’s (NSA) Graduate Student Research Award in 2017, she was a doctoral student at Vanderbilt University , deep in the process of preparing her dissertation. Under the mentorship of Dr. Robin Jones and Dr. Melanie Schuele, and with guidance from Dr. Jim Bodfish, she was exploring a fundamental question in the field of speech-language pathology: Why do some children continue to stutter while others recover? Early Curiosity and Groundbreaking Research Her project, “ The Contribution of Cognitive-Emotional and Speech-Language Vulnerabilities to Stuttering Chronicity ,” investigated how different cognitive and emotional factors might contribute to whether stuttering persists in young children. The NSA Research Fund Award helped her purchase an iPad for administering the NIH toolkit—an innovative way to gather data on cognition in children who stutter. “The award was my first funded external grant, which will always be especially memorable for me,” Dr. Singer said. “It gave me the opportunity to collaborate closely with mentors and senior members of our lab as we explored novel factors related to stuttering chronicity.” That early experience not only supported her research, but also helped launch her career as a scientist and educator. From Graduate Student to Tenured Professor: Dr. Cara Singer’s Career in Stuttering Research After completing her PhD in 2019, Dr. Singer joined Grand Valley State University (GVSU) as an assistant professor. Today, she serves as Associate Professor and Graduate Program Director for Speech-Language Pathology—and recently celebrated earning tenure in 2024. Since her NSA-funded project, she’s published twelve peer-reviewed articles and co-authored the fourth edition of “Stuttering: Foundations and Clinical Applications” alongside Ehud Yairi and Carol Seery. Her 2020 publication, “ Attention, Speech-Language Dissociations, and Stuttering Chronicity ” in the American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology , grew directly out of her NSA-supported research, sharing findings that continue to inform the field today. Research that Builds Confidence and Resilience At GVSU, Dr Cara Singer teaches undergraduate and graduate coursework in stuttering and supervises clinical students. Her current research focuses on building resilience in young children who stutter through bibliotherapy, a creative, therapeutic approach that uses stories to help children navigate their experiences and emotions. “I hope my work helps improve the support we provide to people who stutter and their families,” she says—a goal that continues the same spirit of curiosity that began with her very first research award from the NSA.

Understanding and Dispelling Common Misconceptions Stuttering is a frequently misunderstood speech difference. Research shows that stuttering is a neurological condition  that affects the coordination of speech production, creating interruptions known as disfluencies. Despite decades of research and advocacy, many myths persist. When these misconceptions go unchallenged, they can lead to bias, stigma, and even self-doubt among people who stutter.Here are some of the most common myths — and the facts that replace them with truth. Myth 1: People Stutter Because They Are Nervous Fact:  Nervousness does not cause stuttering. While anyone can become slightly disfluent when anxious, people who stutter experience speech differences rooted in brain function, not emotion. A person who stutters may feel nervous because  they stutter, not the other way around. Myth 2: People Who Stutter Are Shy or Lack Confidence Fact:  People who stutter can be confident, outspoken, and assertive. They may occasionally hesitate to speak because of past negative experiences, but personality traits like shyness do not cause stuttering. Many successful leaders, educators, and advocates stutter and use their voices with strength and authenticity. Myth 3: Stuttering Is Psychological or Caused by Trauma Fact:  Stuttering is not a psychological disorder. Although emotions can influence how stuttering feels, the condition itself is neurological. A rare subtype known as functional stuttering  may result from psychological trauma, but developmental stuttering —the most common form—is not caused by mental health factors. Therapy often includes counseling to address the emotional effects, not because emotion caused the stuttering. Myth 4: People Who Stutter Are Less Intelligent Fact:  Intelligence has nothing to do with stuttering. People who stutter excel as scientists, educators, writers, and professionals across every field. Fluency does not determine intelligence, creativity, or leadership. Myth 5: Stuttering Is Caused by Bad Parenting Fact:  Parenting does not cause stuttering. While family stress may temporarily affect how often stuttering occurs, it is not the root cause. Stuttering develops from genetic and neurological factors, not from anything parents did or did not do. Myth 6: Stuttering Is a Habit That Can Be Broken Fact:  Stuttering is not a habit and cannot simply be “unlearned.” It is a neurodevelopmental speech difference. Many people continue to stutter throughout life even with therapy, though their comfort and confidence often improve dramatically. Myth 7: Children Imitate Stuttering Relatives Fact:  Stuttering is not contagious. Children do not start stuttering by copying others. Because stuttering has genetic components, it may appear in multiple family members, but that is due to shared genes, not imitation. Myth 8: Switching Handedness Causes Stuttering Fact:  This belief was common a century ago but has been disproven. While forcing a left-handed child to switch hands can cause stress, it does not cause stuttering. Studies since the 1940s have found no scientific link between handedness and stuttering onset. Myth 9: Labeling a Child a “Stutterer” Makes It Worse Fact:  Talking about stuttering does not cause or increase it. This idea came from a discredited 1939 study known as the Monster Study . Open , age-appropriate conversations about stuttering help children understand their experiences, build confidence, and advocate for themselves. Myth 10: People Should Avoid Talking About Stuttering Fact:  Discussing stuttering is helpful. Avoiding the topic can increase shame or confusion. When adults speak openly and neutrally about stuttering, children learn that it is acceptable to talk about how they feel and to stutter without fear. Myth 11: Bilingualism Causes Stuttering Fact:  Learning multiple languages does not cause stuttering. Bilingual children may show temporary disfluencies while developing two languages, but this is a normal part of language growth. In fact, bilingualism supports cognitive and social development and should be encouraged. Myth 12: People Who Stutter Need to Slow Down Fact:  Stuttering is not caused by speaking too quickly. Telling someone who stutters to “slow down” is unhelpful and often increases pressure. People who stutter may simply need extra time to express their thoughts. The best way to support them is to listen patiently and focus on what they are saying, not how they are saying it. Breaking Down the Myths These are only a few of the myths that continue to surround stuttering. Dispelling them begins with understanding the facts. To learn more, visit the Facts About Stuttering  page for accurate, research-based information. References National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD). (2023). Stuttering. Tichenor, S. E., & Yaruss, J. S. (2019). Stuttering as defined by adults who stutter.   Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 62 (12), 4356–4369.) Yairi, E., & Ambrose, N. (2013). Epidemiology of stuttering: 21st century advances.   Journal of Fluency Disorders, 38 (2), 66–87.) Last Updated:  October 2025 Author:  National Stuttering Association Marketing & Education Team with contributions from Nicole Kulmaczewski, MS, CCC-SLP and Jacqueline Toscano, SLP.D. CCC-SLP and Caitlin Franchini, MS, CCC-SLP and Megan M. Young, ABD, CCC-SLP

Understanding the Facts and Changing Perceptions The more we understand stuttering, the better we can educate others about it. The National Stuttering Association works with leading speech-language pathologists and researchers to provide reliable, up-to-date information about this communication difference. Here are some of the most important, research-supported facts about stuttering. When and How Stuttering Begins Stuttering typically begins between the ages of two and five , when children’s language skills are rapidly developing. About five percent of children  experience a period of stuttering, though only around one percent of people worldwide  continue to stutter long-term. The onset can be gradual or sudden. Early intervention from a speech-language pathologist (SLP) can help families build confidence and respond supportively. What Stuttering Looks and Feels Like Stuttering involves involuntary speech interruptions  called disfluencies . These may include: Sound or syllable repetitions (“n-n-no,” “wha-wha-whatever”) Single-syllable word repetitions (“my my my”) Sound prolongations (“ssssun”) Blocks — moments when no sound comes out (“…you”) People who stutter may also show physical tension or secondary movements such as eye blinks or facial twitches. The sensation can feel like a loss of control, often leading to frustration or fear of speaking, especially if listeners react impatiently. Genetic and Neurological Influences Research shows that stuttering often runs in families and is influenced by genetics. Brain-imaging studies reveal differences in the areas of the brain that coordinate language, timing, and motor control. These neurological differences confirm that stuttering is a neurodevelopmental speech condition , not a learned behavior or psychological problem. Children do not “pick up” stuttering by hearing someone else stutter. For more insight, visit Causes of Stuttering . Variability Is Normal Stuttering naturally changes over time  and across situations. A person who once repeated sounds may later experience more blocking or prolongations. Some days speech may feel easier, while other days are more effortful. This variability is normal and reflects how dynamic communication truly is. Periods of fluency do not mean stuttering has disappeared, and moments of struggle do not mean failure. Who Is Affected by Stuttering Stuttering occurs in every language and culture around the world. It affects more males than females  — roughly two boys for every girl in childhood and four men for every woman in adulthood. About eighty percent of children  who begin to stutter will recover naturally. Those who continue into their school years are more likely to stutter as adults. Multilingual speakers often stutter in all their languages, though it may appear differently in each one. For instance, repetitions may occur more in one language and blocks in another. All of these differences are valid and normal. Avoidance and Emotional Impact Some people who stutter try to hide it by changing words, talking quickly, or avoiding situations where speaking feels difficult. Although these behaviors may help in the moment, they can increase stress and reduce the joy of communication. Therapy should address both the physical and emotional  aspects of stuttering, supporting confidence, openness, and authentic self-expression. The Experience Beyond Speech For people who stutter, the visible speech differences are only part of the story. The emotional, social, and psychological impact can be just as significant. Supportive peers, understanding listeners, and community connection all help reduce stigma and build resilience. The NSA provides safe spaces and education to ensure that people who stutter feel valued and understood. Explore our Local Chapters  to connect with others who share your experience. People Who Stutter Are Effective Communicators People who stutter can be confident, engaging, and powerful speakers. Fluency is not a measure of intelligence or ability. With patience and understanding from listeners, communication can be clear, meaningful, and impactful — stuttering and all. Learn more about therapy and support options on our Stuttering Treatment Options  page. Why Knowing the Facts Matters Understanding the facts helps replace myths with truth. It encourages patience, empathy, and inclusion in classrooms, workplaces, and communities everywhere. When we share accurate information, we help build a world that listens and understands. Continue learning on our Myths About Stuttering  page. References Smith, A., & Weber, C. (2017). How stuttering develops: The multifactorial dynamic pathways theory.   Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60 (9), 2483–2505. Yairi, E., & Ambrose, N. (2013). Epidemiology of stuttering: 21st century advances.   Journal of Fluency Disorders, 38 (2), 66–87. Tichenor, S. E., & Yaruss, J. S. (2019). Stuttering as defined by adults who stutter.   Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 62 (12), 4356–4369. National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD). (2023). Stuttering. Last Updated:  October 2025 Author:  National Stuttering Association Marketing & Education Team with contributions from Nicole Kulmaczewski, MS, CCC-SLP and Jacqueline Toscano, SLP.D. CCC-SLP

While there is currently no cure  for stuttering that works consistently across time and for all people, there are many evidence-based options that help individuals communicate more comfortably and confidently. Therapy may focus on communication confidence, desensitization to stuttering, mindfulness, speech modification, or stuttering acceptance . Because every person’s experience is unique, effective treatment must be tailored to the individual —what helps one person may not help another. There Is No Cure for Stuttering No single technique, device, or medication can “cure” stuttering. People who continue to stutter beyond early childhood will likely do so, to some degree, throughout life. Stuttering is a neurophysiological speech difference , not a behavioral habit to break. Although people who stutter speak differently, they are fully capable of being effective communicators —without forcing unnatural effort or discomfort in speech. Therapy success lies in building confidence and reducing the struggle, not in eliminating stuttering completely. Therapy for Young Children Early intervention is key. When stuttering is identified in a young child, referral to a qualified speech-language pathologist (SLP)  is recommended for a comprehensive evaluation. This assessment should consider not only observable behaviors but also the child’s emotional reactions, frustration, and self-perception. Early therapy can: Encourage positive attitudes  toward communication Teach families how to respond supportively Reduce avoidance or fear of speaking situations Foster self-advocacy  and confidence Although early intervention may not determine whether stuttering persists, it can profoundly shape how children feel about speaking  and their long-term resilience. Fluency Shaping Fluency shaping  aims to modify speech patterns to promote smoother speech. An SLP teaches techniques such as gentle onsets, controlled breathing, and slower rates of speech. Some programs also use assistive devices , such as Delayed Auditory Feedback (DAF) , to help speakers adjust timing. While some people find fluency-shaping methods useful, others may struggle to maintain them over time. Because these programs focus primarily on eliminating stuttering, they can overlook the emotional and psychological aspects  of communication, which are often central to long-term success. Stuttering Modification Developed by Charles Van Riper , this approach focuses on modifying moments of stuttering  to make them easier, shorter, and less tense. An SLP helps clients: Identify disfluencies when they occur Reduce physical tension during speech Confront fears of speaking Develop comfortable speech patterns  that feel natural Stuttering modification combines counseling, education, and desensitization to reduce anxiety around speaking. Rather than striving for perfect fluency, it empowers individuals to stutter openly and without fear , fostering comfort and self-acceptance. (See Medina et al., 2020 for related support group motivation findings.) Stutter-Affirming Therapy Approaches Stutter-affirming therapy  views stuttering as a natural part of human communication , not a defect to fix.This approach promotes autonomy, acceptance, advocacy, and pride. Goals include: Choosing when and how to speak  comfortably Voluntary stuttering  and self-disclosure  to reduce fear Building peer connections  with others who stutter Developing communication competence  beyond fluency metrics By focusing on self-acceptance and identity, these approaches help clients redefine success: not in terms of fluency, but in confidence and connection . (Constantino, 2023 outlines the principles of stutter-affirming therapy.) Alternative Stuttering Treatments Alternative methods—ranging from vitamins and motivational programs to medications or Botox—have been explored by people seeking fluency. However, scientific support is limited . A National Stuttering Association survey (2002) revealed that adults who stutter have tried an extraordinary variety of treatments, often with inconsistent results. Before considering any non-clinical method, review it critically  and consult an SLP. There is no evidence-based cure  for stuttering—beware of products promising one. Read more on our Alternative Treatments for Stuttering  page. What Makes Treatment Successful? Successful therapy is person-centered . It aims to: Reduce negative emotions and communication stress Improve participation in daily life Strengthen self-advocacy and family support Enhance quality of life rather than fluency alone An SLP may combine multiple approaches—fluency shaping, stuttering modification, mindfulness, and counseling—to meet each client’s unique needs. Choosing to enter therapy is a personal decision. The NSA provides resources and referrals through our Find a Speech Therapist  page. Support Groups Make a Difference Stuttering support groups, such as our Local NSA Chapters , provide vital connection and encouragement. Benefits include: Speaking freely without judgment Sharing lived experiences Gaining confidence and new perspectives Discovering that you are not alone Research has shown that peer support programs—such as the NSA Conference and Camp Dream. Speak. Live. —enhance confidence and communication comfort. To Sum It Up The success of treatment depends on individual goals, attitudes, and support . There is no single path to fluent or confident communication. What matters most is that treatment—formal or community-based—helps improve quality of life  for each person who stutters. Regardless of where you are in your journey, remember: If You Stutter, You’re Not Alone. References Medina, A. M., Almeida, N., Amarante, K., Martinez, N., & Prezzemolo, M. (2020). Adults Who Stutter and Their Motivation for Attending Stuttering Support Groups: A Pilot Study.   Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 5 (1), 142-154. Constantino, C. D. (2023). Fostering positive stuttering identities using stutter-affirming therapy. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 54(1), 42–62.  Byrd, C. T., Winters, K. L., Young, M., Werle, D., Croft, R. L., Hampton, E., Coalson, G., White, A., & Gkalitsiou, Z. (2021). The communication benefits of participation in Camp Dream. Speak. Live.: An extension and replication. Seminars in Speech and Language, 42(2), 117-135.  Original material provided by: Leslee Dean, M.A. (Latin American Studies), MS-SLP student at Florida International University, and Angela M. Medina, Ph.D., CCC-SLP.Revisions provided (01 / 2024) by Caitlin Franchini, MS, CCC-SLP, and Megan M. Young, ABD, CCC-SLP. Last Updated:  October 2025 Author:  National Stuttering Association Marketing & Education Team with contributions from Nicole Kulmaczewski, MS, CCC-SLP and Jacqueline Toscano, SLP.D. CCC-SLP